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Transformational Leadership used with Social Work Client Population in the State of Illinois and the State of Indiana
I. Capstone Proposal Statement 2014
A. Proposed Title
Transformational Leadership Model and its use with Social Work Profession Client Population
B. Outline/Overview of Project or paper
I. Transformational Leadership Model
II. Introduction: A History of the Social Work Profession Leadership Model
III. The Child Care Act of 1969
IV. Research Findings for Transformational Leadership: Social Work Profession
State of Illinois and State of Indiana, U.S.A.
V. Conclusions/Summary
VI. Future Research
VII. Application of the Transformational Leadership Model to Relevant Leaders
VIII. Personal Reflection on Leadership Theory
References
Annotated Bibliography
Literature Review
XIII Proposed Solution
XIV Information on Stake Holders: Support Systems
XV Expected/Real Outcomes
C. Explanation of why this topic is important and interesting to you
I have worked in the Social Work Profession for a number of years. I began my career in the state of Indiana working in Public Aid and Child Welfare Services. After twelve years of work experience, I came to the State of Illinois to continue my career working in Child Welfare Services. I have experienced many changes in administration/Management, policy, procedure, and the outcome for the client populations that the profession has served. Not all of these experiences have been positive. In addition, not all targeted groups/populations/individuals in need of intervention supports are able to receive the proper services and many are unable to navigate in the systems.
In 2015 there seemed to be a pattern over the years involving an upheaval within administrative offices of management in Child Welfare Services in the State of Illinois. In the past three years there had been seven directors of the Department who have resigned; the most recent one resigned in the past few months. The retention rate of staff has historically been unstable with most workers using their positions as a stepping stone to other more prominent positions. In addition the work/caseloads for workers have been extreme, the resources to complete work assignments have been sparse, and the demands from the hierarchy of agency management do not always acquiesce with the realistic delivery of services from the worker. The moral of workers was often compromised, resulting in a difficult exchange between management, the State Legislative funding body, and how the agency is received by the public consumer. “If what you have been doing for 50 years is not working then maybe it is time for you to do something differently (Obama, Barack, President, 2015, jan, news report).”
In my completion of a short literature review regarding the proposed topic it appears that there is limited data available globally from the profession as to how to process the strategy for best practice in transformational leadership in social work. The social work profession has the expectation that individuals who have a career within the profession will invest in further research, data, and provide additional information to expound and extrapolate to a higher level of understanding in the profession and to further develop a knowledge base. As an individual who has worked in the profession for a number of years, and who continues to seek knowledge and direction towards a better outcome in the work environment within the profession this has been my effort to do my part to meet that goal.
D. Identification of resources, support, or help that will make your project successful
A more in depth literature review involving the State of Illinois and the State of Indiana shall provide more data that will substantiate how the Transformational Leadership model in management has facilitated the process of management with subordinates, and how their efforts have impacted the Social Work environment. This short paper has identified only four applicable studies (China, Sweden, and the U.S.) An effort will be made to focus on other Social Service agencies in the United States that have been published and their findings.
E. Identification of Capstone Mentor
Dr.Laverne Gyant, Professor Adult Counseling Higher Education Department NIU Dekalb, Illinois.
I have chosen Dr. Gyant because I have been enrolled in her classes, in the past, when I was enrolled in the Higher Education Division, when I attended Northern Illinois University as a Doctoral student in the Higher Education for Adults and Counseling program. I have come to value, and appreciate, Dr. Gyant’s opinion as an instructor. Dr. Gyant has always been available for me to process my struggles in the higher education program, as an adjunct instructor, and she has proven to be a good person to depend on for valuable information.
II. Purpose Statement
A. What is the issue(s) or question that you are addressing? Why is this an important matter for you?
I have worked in the Social Work Profession for a number of years. I began my career in the state of Indiana working in Public Aid and Child Welfare Services. After twelve years I came to the State of Illinois to continue my career working in Child Welfare Services. I have experienced many changes in administration/Management, policy, procedure, and the outcome for the client populations that the profession has served. Not all of these experiences have been positive.
Some may question whether management and staff have the same agenda regarding the implementation of services to the social work client population. Others may have determined that the style of management in the agency with their subordinates challenges the delivery process. In addition not all targeted groups/populations/individuals in need of intervention supports are able to receive the proper services and many are unable to navigate in the systems.
In 2015 there continued to be a pattern that has established over the years involving an upheaval within administrative offices of management in Child Welfare Services in the State of Illinois. In the past three years there had been seven directors of the Department who have resigned; the most recent one had resigned in the past few months. The retention rate of staff has historically been unstable with most workers used their positions as a stepping stone to other more prominent positions.
In addition the work/caseloads for workers have been extreme, the resources to complete work assignments have been sparse or shared with private social service agencies, and the demands from the hierarchy of agency management do not always acquiesce with the realistic delivery of services from the worker. The moral of workers is often compromised, resulting in a difficult exchange between management, the State Legislative funding body, and how the agency is received by the public consumer. There is the impression that the best interest of the child has not been served by the agency. “If what you have been doing for 50 years is not working then maybe it is time for you to do something differently (Obama, Barack, President, 2015, jan, news report).”
B. Why does the issue in question exist at the present time?
In my initial completion of a short literature review regarding the proposed topic it appears that there is limited data available globally from the profession as to how to process the strategy for best practice in transformational leadership in social work. The social work profession has the expectation that individuals who have a career within the profession will invest in further research, data, and provide additional information to expound and extrapolate to a higher level of understanding in the profession and to further develop a knowledge base. As an individual who has worked in the profession for a number of years, and who continues to seek knowledge and direction towards a better outcome in the work environment within the profession this has been my effort to do my part to meet that goal.
In an effort to complete a literature review of available data it appears that presently data is limited on this subject matter. A second, more recent, literature review completed by me was done with a search using the terms transformational leadership, social work client population, State of Illinois, and State of Indiana. This was an attempt to narrow the scope of available data and to refine the subject matter. This review found more data that has been completed by other countries outside of the United States, some data that is available regarding Child Welfare Agencies and management styles that are in use, and other variables that impact the state of affairs in organizations (i.e. aggression, violence, immigrant status).
C. How will your paper address the identified problem?
This short paper will attempt to explore the impact of utilizing a transformational leadership model in social work agencies that provide support and intervention services to their client population. This paper will examine data that might be available regarding the implementation of social work services in the State of Illinois and the State of Indiana. These two states have been chosen as target variables to study because I have worked in both states, in social service agencies in both states, in the position as a social worker providing support services to client populations in the past.
In my past work experiences with social service agencies as a worker working with client populations I have worked with numerous supervisors, managers, and directors. Each of these individuals has had their own individual management styles. Most of these management styles were determined upon who was in charge at the hierarchy, and what policy, mandates, and procedures were expected to be the guideline for the implementation of services. In addition, the state legislature has been involved in monetary restrictions and budgets that have also had an impact upon the manner in which services have been implemented.
There seems to have always been some level of upheaval in the state agencies, litigation against the agency involving clients/support groups, and media reports to the public that involved some issue with the state agency management of the provision of services. It is the hope of my project that I will be able to find data that has explored a different management style, transformational leadership that has had some success with workers as subordinates to their managers.
D. The purpose of this paper
The purpose of this paper is to determine if there is available data that substantiates the use of the transformational leadership theory/model with managers and their subordinates in the social work profession involving their client population. The effort to seek data will seek available information that provides a discussion regarding the uses of this model in the profession, the impact of the worker/supervisor relationship in the work environment, and whether the implementation of services/workload is improved with the implementation of this theory/model.
III. Transformational Leadership Theory
“Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2013, p. 5).” “Leadership involves influence…occurs in groups…with a common purpose. This can be a small task group, a community group, or a large group encompassing an entire organization. Leadership is about one individual influencing a group of others to accomplish a common goal (Northouse, 2013, p. 6).” “Leaders have an ethical responsibility to attend to the needs and concerns of followers (Northouse, 2013, p. 6).”
Transformational Leadership is a more current form of leadership that has inspired research and popularity in its approach since 1980 (Northouse, 2013). This approach to leadership is said to be a “process that changes and transforms people (Northouse, 2013, p. 185).” The process involves and includes assessment of subordinate’s motives, meeting their needs, and treating them in a humane manner. In addition the process encourages subordinates to advance, develop and grow to levels that they have not experienced in the past. It also makes use of a leader who has charisma, and good vision (Northouse, 2013). The term was initially used in 1973 by Downtown, and it later emerged by a political socialist (Burns) in 1978. Burns made a clear distinction between Transformational Leadership and Transactional Leadership.
Transformational leadership involves a leader who encourages subordinates to excel in their morality and their level of motivation. This leadership model involves an action and exchange/reward for the action that is enacted by the subordinate (Northouse, 2013). In the Transformational leadership theory the leader nurtures subordinates, seeks to raise their level of consciousness and empowerment. In addition the effort is for the leader to become a strong role model for change, to create a vision, using good social skills towards becoming a social architect for change. In summary the leader uses charisma, consideration for others, and makes an effort to meet the needs of subordinates (Northouse, 2013).
Smith (2013) informs the reader that transformational leadership “involves a unique relationship between a leader and followers whereby each party ‘transforms’ the other by appealing to social motives, such as justice and peace (Burns, 1978) (p. 18). “Transformational leaders typically use one or more of four strategies; idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass& Avolio, 1997) (p. 18).” The author (Smith, 2013, p. 18) believes that some, one, or more of these variables may contribute to personal vision, enthusiasm, and optimism, that these variables are intertwined with the concept of charisma, and they may, also, be tied into the charm, and inspirational motivation which some studies indicate may be responsible for a element of psychopathology in the work environment among managers.
Outside of Smith other authors believe that the Transformational (TL) leadership approach is based upon the premise of the four I’s of a seven factor model of leadership (Northouse, 2013, p. 190-191). The four I’s include the Transformational approach to leadership: Idealized Influence, Inspirational Motivation, Intellectual Stimulation, and Individualized Consideration. The Idealized Influence involves the charismatic observation of a leader. Inspirational Motivation involves a leader who communicates high expectations to subordinates, and inspires motivation. Intellectual Stimulation involves a leader who stimulates subordinates to be creative and innovative. Individual Consideration involves a leader who provides a supportive environment for subordinates along with active listening skills.
Wallis et. al. (2011) has included data from writings from Bass (1985, 1980) regarding the topic of transformational leadership. The authors indicate that TL is a Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory that is based upon a role and social exchange objective that shows a relationship that is a quality dyad leader-follower position that is predictive of the relationship and its outcomes (Wallis, 2011,p. 183). The LMX theory states that this relationship tends to be vertical in its linkage and it has a foundation in the studies regarding a dyad relationship where the leader’s management of their subordinate(s), their interaction in the organizational tasks to be performed, can contribute to unique, dyadic relationship that can develop over time (Wallis, 2011,p. 183).
The author (Wallis) informs the reader that this LMX theory developed as the result of the, then, average leadership style (ALS) approach. This approach espoused that leaders tend to treat different subordinates/followers differently, they may differ from non-leaders, but in the end all experience the same relationship with the leader in their environment. The author, also, indicates that additional studies have shown that differential relationships between the leader and their subordinates in the work environment resulted in the leader experiencing similar and yet different experiences in the work place (Wallis, 2011, p. 183). The approach is said to have highlighted the importance of a focus on this dyadic leader-subordinate relationship as a viable unit to study separate from studies involving group dynamics (Wallis, 2011, p. 183).
“In LMX theory, lower-quality LMX relationships reflect primarily transactional (ends to a mean) leadership, while higher-quality LMX relationships reflect primarily transformational leadership (Graen &Uhl-Bien, 1995). As Individualized Leadership, the focus here, is a unique formulation that includes elements of both transactional and transformational leadership, these approaches warrant further exploration (Wallis, et.al., 2011, p. 184).” “ Transformational leaders develop their followers to achieve goals greater than they previously expected (Bass, 1985). Just as these relationships include followers who are willing to change, the transformational leadership framework assumes also that the leader is willing to change as well (Avolio, Walden, Yammarino, 1991) (Wallis, et. al., 2011, p. 184).”
The Individualized Leadership characterizes transformational leadership, leaders in a dyad with subordinates, as not necessarily being transformational leaders. This approach surmises that leaders in these relationships more frequently will implement transformational leadership traits and behaviors; behaviors that will increase trust with subordinates, and commitment from their followers; they are more likely to be involved in organizations that are well-run, and organized to produce such outcomes from their interactions (Bass et.al., 1978, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1996, 2001) (Wallis, et. al., 2011, p. 185).
The strengths of this approach indicate that the transformational leadership model is widely researched, it has a strong value for subordinates, and the process is focused, with an expansive viewpoint. The criticisms of the model indicate that the measurement methods may be questionable, that it is an elitist theory of leadership, and that the model is similar in application to the Trait theory of leadership. The full range model of Leadership also includes Transactional Leadership with three additional factors, and the Laissez-Faire Leadership with one additional factor, which total seven different factors.
These factors include contingent reward, constructive transaction (factor 5), and management-by-exception, active and passive, and corrective transactions in Transactional Leadership. In addition there is the Laissez-faire, nontransactional factor in the Laissez-faire Leadership. “In essence transformational leadership produces greater effects than transactional leadership. Whereas transactional leadership results in expected outcomes, transformational leadership results in performance that goes well beyond what is expected (Northouse, 2013, p. 193).”
“A firm that is permeated with transformational leadership from top to bottom conveys to its own personnel as well as to customers, suppliers, financial backers, and the community at large that it has its eyes on the future; is confident; has personnel who are pulling together for the common good; and places a premium on its intellectual resources and flexibility and on the development of its people (Bass, 2000, p. 25).”
IV. The Social Work Profession
The profession of social work is one that places a focus of a helping relationship for client populations; individuals (micro systems), couples, families, communities (macro systems), cultures, etc. “The patient, client, service user, citizen is seen as a crucial actor, even the crucial actor, in achieving whatever outcomes are desired in the social work process. Thus, social work must be more participatory, rather than therapeutic. This is the success of task-centered work (Payne, 2005, p. 66).”
Payne (2005) continues to inform the reader by saying “Social work theory is saying that the needs and wishes of the individual served must count in any morally valid practice that intervenes in the social milieu. Social work theory is, finally, accepting the socialist-collectivist part of itself, but with an emphasis on the social and political position of clients within critical, feminist and empowering practice, rather than seeking to form their needs into false collective interests ( Payne, 2005, p. 67).” In addition Payne informs the reader that “Social workers use critical and reflective practice to create theory, by practicing reflectively with their clients. This is how their work becomes part of the critical debate among the ideas that inform social work action in the arenas that construct theory in a complex social world (Payne, 2005, p. 67).”
A. Introduction: A history of the Social Work Profession and Leadership
I. The Early Years: The Development of the Profession
The American Native Americans were subjected to the removal of their children from their homes early in our American history. These children were placed in the care of America White families because it was “in their best interest” (Day, 2002).” In Australia Indigenous Aborigine Indian children were removed from their homes and placed in White civilian homes. During the era of the Charity Organization Society (COS) family investigations of families who were determined to be poor would be subjected to the removal of their child in their best interest. And during the American Depression of the 1930’s unemployment rates were so extreme to have been determined the poor, the poor relief rolls were so high that many children found themselves displaced from their parent homes and placed in alms houses for their care.
The presidential administration of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) began to take another look at poor relief programs. One of these social welfare programs involved the working conditions for children. This included exploring child labor laws in addition to work hours and working conditions involving these children. Like women children were experiencing working in extreme work conditions. Women and children were working 12-14 hour days, and there were few to no safety restrictions for their work environment against fires, extreme heat or cold temperatures. At that time in our history, our society perceived children to be miniature adults. This resulted in situations where women and children were exposed to fire traps, physical accidents, mutilation and death. America had evolved from a nation of plenty in 1669 to a nation of depression/on the edge in 1819.
Many displaced children were placed in alms houses. They were taken from one set of undeveloped circumstances to another set of undeveloped, yet, poorly supervised environments. Catholic social work formed the Sisters of the Poor to address these issues. This group developed assistance to the poor by developing hospitals, orphanages, and schools. Later in 1851 the YMCA was developed, in 1860 the Boys Club of America developed, in 1866 the YWCA was established, and in 1865 the Salvation Army was formed.
These were all organizations created to elevate the lifestyle of the family and their family members. The government social welfare programs looked towards institutionalization of poor families and displacing children. At the same time the state was initiating investigations for the efficacy of the alms houses. As the politicians entered the arena their participation in the process juxtaposed corruption and the development of policy and procedure of these social service agencies. An influx of private citizens sought to influence the legislature to change the work and labor laws (Day, 2002).
From 1865-1900 the Child Welfare services, Settlement House development, and Child Saving methods were utilized as well as Foster Home placement for children. In the early 1900’s Mary Richmond began her work with the Charity Organization Society (COS) as a clerk and was mentored through the years to become a teacher, an administrator, and the author of Social Diagnosis, the theory and guidelines for Child Welfare Services to the indigent. In Chicago, Illinois, Jane Adams established a Settlement house which had been modeled after the English Settlement Houses in England.
Although she was seen as a pioneer for the development of social welfare issues Jane was more involved in social change for poor citizens. After a brief illness followed by a short visit to Europe, she developed the Hull House in Chicago, Illinois with the assistance of her colleagues. This home later developed into other community based homes. Jane and her staff often found themselves embattled with local politicians. Their struggles centered on justice, dignity and the rights of immigrant citizens in the community. Hull House was initially intended to develop activities, clubs, and social outlets for women and children. In later years they sought to develop activities, clubs, and social outlets for men to keep them out of the bars, and to reduce the issues involving alcohol and local crime rates (Day, 2002).
2. The Profession Develops
The premise of social welfare reform and social work publically alluded to a profession of caring. The underpinnings of the reform only sought to add to the condition of the demoralized poor. After the Civil War the Freedman Bureau, which was developed by the United States government, was seen as the first federal welfare agency in the late 1800’s. In addition to providing support to southern Whites, former slaves, and former soldiers, they were advocates to children, and higher education.
In the late 1800’s public welfare was influenced by politicians. By 1897 states began to develop charity boards, and these boards resulted in removing children from the alms houses and they were placed in foster care homes. Again, the state of Illinois became a leader in the inroads to progress in social service reform. These reforms were for children, child labor laws, and small allotment benefits for mother’s pensions (Day, 2002).
When the Revolution ended municipalities were also experiencing issues involving child welfare. The life expectancy of a child in care was 14 years of age. Welfare has been an issue for all, both good and bad, since the beginning of time. In the beginning there was mostly mutual aid among family and neighbors. In time this social policy evolved to support communities, the church, and tribes. In addition, the American Colonial Societies developed which was based on models of European social form.
Then the era of FDR and the WPA programs were developed. These programs allowed the unemployed to work for meager salaries, while at the same time they were able to maintain some level of dignity; having a home and family. The federal government became involved in social welfare policy and provisions to private agency charity during 1930-1940. The Kennedy administration of the 1960’s enacted policy that encouraged an explosion of social welfare charity that extended into the 1970’s (Day, 2002).
3. The Profession Evolves
There was a split of the social welfare system into two separate entities around 1942. Racist attitudes prevented minorities and the disenfranchised from qualifying for entitled benefits. The social work profession changed and went back and forth in their methods to investigate clients for benefits. Programs were developed under the Social Security Act; OAA,SSI, ADC,AFDC, as well as unemployment Insurance, for entitlement programs to support the impoverished, needy families, and disabled individuals.
The economic changes that were implementing with FDR in 1930’s were now high lightened by the election of Eisenhower in the 1950’s. The word Communism began to be heard throughout the country, again, with a resurgence of the Red Scare. Political groups were on guard with the development of professional unions and individuals were jailed for their involvement and suspiciousness of membership. Welfare and social work were connected and Eisenhower expanded social benefit programs. Agency case mangers became a new kind of investigator in their efforts to streamline the eligibility rolls.
Social Darwinism established a definition for individual worthiness: superior intellect, and cultural biases. The Civil Rights Movement introduced Martin Luther King, Jr. (notion of non violence), Malcolm X, Rosa Parks, and the SNCC (notion of any means necessary) organization with a goal towards individual rights for minorities. The 1960’s saw more changes for American citizens. Nixon took on extreme conservative methods involving politics and the U.S. economy. He believed that his presidency placed him “above the law”; this resulted in improper investigations of agencies, foreign governments, and radical groups impacting our American society.
Nixon’s administration funneled government funds directly to the states for the disbursement and administration of social services. This resulted in program cuts and restrictions on one hand but the expansion of the Food Stamp Program on the other hand. During the 1970’s after the election of Gerald Ford the country saw an elevation in entitlement programs, and a different change for the social work profession; conservatism and the mental health movement. Social security benefits were paid from present contributors; unemployment benefits were determined by quarterly work status; AFDC went after absent fathers for payment of child support; and the EEOC struggled with addressing complaints from minority groups (Day, 2002).
4. Policy Defines the Profession
One of the social welfare policies which developed in the 1960’s was the Child Care Act of 1969. The act/policy was developed under the auspices of the Child Welfare Agency. The National Welfare Rights Organization (NWRO) was developed between 1966-1974. The organization consisted of 540 separate welfare agencies with its headquarters located in Washington, D.C. The organization was navigated by professional poverty lawyers, and caseworkers from public welfare.
The NWRO was formed in 1966 during a meeting of these individuals who formulated their mission upon four goals. These goals involved democracy, dignity, justice, and income. These goals remained unchanged until the group met its demise in the middle 1970’s. The intent of the organization was to assure basic rights to life and equality for all citizens that had submerged in the 1950’s and 1960’s.
There are many varied matters that each state comes to utilize in mandatory and regulatory matters to assure the safety of children while in substitute care/day care facilities. The state of Illinois utilizes the Child Care Act of 1969 for this purpose. This act has been implemented under the direction of the Illinois Department of Children and Family Services (IDCFS). Day Care Licensing Representatives act as consultants to providers to regulate licensing of facilities and the provision of state statutes, regulations, and guidelines for their operation.
B. The Child Care Act Document of 1969 IDCFS pp. 1-16
“As analysts, we believe firmly that what happens in a child’s early years is more decisive for his development than what occurs later (Anna Freud, 1969, p. 465).”
“I maintain that any child’s normal development is based on the fulfillment not of a single need but of a whole series and hierarchy of needs, stemming from all sides of his personality. Children need the opportunity to develop their affections towards suitable objects in their environments; they need to feel that they themselves are important (Anna Freud, 1969, p. 80).”
The Child Care Act of 1969 was “published as a public service by the Illinois Department of Children and Family Services (CCA, 1969, p. 1).” The following definitions have been taken directly from the Child Care Act of 1969. This act shall be known and may be cited as the Child Care Act of 1969 (Source: P.A., 76-63). The act is very specific in providing day care providers, day care homes, day care group homes, and day care centers the guidelines and the parameters that will allow them to provide care to minor children.
The act, first, defines a child in section 2.01. The definition of a child is a person age 0-18 years old, who is a minor in need of care and supervision of adult caretaker, parent or guardian. The act also includes in this definition for admission to residential institutions, maternity care group homes and any person under the age of 21 years old. In addition these individuals (maternity residents) will need to be in need of services from a parent, legal guardian, or juvenile court officer.
“There is no doubt that we both regard personal characteristics such as frustration tolerance, anxiety tolerance, and a high potential for sublimation and neutralization of drives as substantial aids in maintaining the status of health (Anna Freud, 1969, p. 219).” In my social work experience I find that in any position involving work within human relationships, it is important to be a good listener; to be empathic; to have a sense of foreboding; and to use good judgment as well as a good sense of humor.
The worker should have patience, the ability to deflect personalized attacks, as well as to be a team member in the agency where they work. It is a good thing if you love the work that you do. It is more important that you are assuring the parents who need to work to care for their family that you will be present and available to assure that their child is safe in the environment of a substitute caregiver; to assure the parent that their child is receiving good care, and good measure; to assist in the facilitation process that will enable the individual to navigate in their day to day activities of life.
“The best interests of a child are served, according to our point of view, by all measures which promote his smooth progression toward maturity. The latter, in its turn, depends above all on the coincidence of three factors; on the free interchange of affection between child and adult; on ample external stimulation of the child’s inborn, internal potentialities; and on unbroken continuity of care (Anna Freud, 1969, p. 469).” “Guided by these ideas, I feel certain that any body of trained workers, such as ours, has a double duty: on the one hand, to apply existing knowledge about child development to the practical work with children; on the other hand, to work consistently toward an increase of knowledge by investigating problems which have been insufficiently studied so far (Anna Freud, 1969, p. 24).”
V. Research Findings for Transformational Leadership in the Social Work Profession
A. Social Work Perceptions of Transformational and Transactional Leadership in Health Care
A quantitative research project involving Transformational Leadership and Transactional Leadership is reported by Gellis (2001). The report involves empirical data regarding social work, management, and leadership practices in the medical milieu. “Few investigations have examined the association between leadership behaviors and organizational performance in the social work field (Gellis, 2001, p. 17).”
The model was tested using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, using a sample of 187 clinical social workers working in hospitals; clinical social workers have additional training in psychology/ treatment models of care/therapy/counseling. The goal of the research was to determine the nature of leader-follower interactions as conceptualized by Bass (1985) on the basis of social worker’s views of their leader. “Bass’ (1985) theory of transformational leadership was developed from Burn’s (1978) thesis of transactional and transformational political leaders (Gellis, 2110, p. 18).” A problem-solving approach within participating groups was the course of action taken in this model of inquiry.
“Bargal and Schmid (1989) reviewed the management literature and suggested such themes as transformational leadership, vision, and strategy, and organizational culture to be useful to the social work field. They stated that there has been a changing paradigm in research on organizations…and these themes represent holistic and interdisciplinary approaches to understanding leadership approaches [p. 52] (Gellis, 2001, p. 17).” “At a theoretical level, transformational leadership has the potential to be instructive to the social work field [Gummer, 1995]. Therefore, this research investigated social workers’ association with organization effectiveness. No previous studies have been identified that extend the theory of transformational leadership in the social work and health field (Gellis, 2001, p. 17).”
The author informs the reader that in the past the social work profession has had limited studies on methodology in leadership and that their data lacked adequate sample size, systematic observation of leaders/managerial behaviors, issues of reliability and validity of measurement instruments, failure of respondent participation, in addition to failing to specify a definitive definition of their leadership practices. The author states that” new research in development for organizational leadership tend to focus on transformational leadership [Bass, 1985] and the related concepts of charismatic [Conger & Kanungo, 1988] and inspirational leadership [Bennis & Nanus, 1985] (Gellis, 2001, p. 18).”
In the reporting of this research project the term social worker was exchanged for subordinates, a cross-sectional survey design was implemented, 10 academic teaching hospitals were used, in conjunction with 16 community hospitals. The intent of the study was to determine the level of transformational and/or transactional leadership behaviors used, and to determine which of these leadership strategies were most predictive for worker effectiveness, and satisfaction with the leader in the hospital.
“This study was part of a larger project examining the psychological well-being of hospital social workers in a period of health care reform (Gellis, 2001, p. 19).” A pilot study was completed concurrently in a nonparticipating hospital to assure the validity of the research instrument, as well as to determine any unforeseen difficulties that could occur with their sample. The personal data regarding the participants was redacted. Information regarding the participants involved age, gender, highest level of education, years of experience, specialty practice, and length of employment. The researchers were particularly concerned that the current health care reform was impacting the hospital causing a dramatic change in their delivery of services to the public.
“Leadership behavior was measured with the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ Form 5X), a 45-item measure devised by Bass and Avlio [1990]. Five subscales of the MLQ 5X measured transformational leader behaviors [the 4 I’s] and idealized influence was also attributed. Four subscales of the MLQ were used to measure transactional leadership [contingent, passive, active, and laissez-faire management style].
The participants were asked to judge the degree that their manager utilized the specific behavior noted in the MLQ tool, and a five point scale was used to measure their responses (Gellis, 2001, p. 19).” “In this study the subscales of the MLQ have a good internal consistency with Cronbach’s alphas meeting Nunnally’s [1978] criterion of 70. On the basis of confirmatory factor analyses using PLS and LISREL, Bass and his colleagues obtained adequate convergent as well as discriminate validity for the constructs contained in the leadership instrument [Bass & Avolio, 1997] (Gellis, 2001, p. 19-20).”
The outcome variables used three items to measure any extra effort used by leaders. Leader effectiveness used four items to measure effectiveness of leaders. In addition Leader satisfaction used two items to measure the level of satisfaction with their leader. There was a standard deviation level between .92 and 1.23 that resulted from the use of a series of hierarchical regressions performed to examine the impact of the outcome of the different variables in the study. The method of practice that appeared to be most prominently used by manage
rs in this work with this population of medical/clinical social workers was transformational leadership; transformational factors tended to score higher than transactional factors in subordinate satisfaction with their leaders; satisfaction, effectiveness, and extra effort (Gellis, 2001, p. 22, table 3-4).
The results of this study suggest that transformational leadership did have significant and substantial add-on effects to transactional leadership in the prediction of perceived effectiveness and satisfaction with the leader in a social work sample. The findings in this study corroborated the hypothesis that the idealized attribute and individual consideration factors add unique variance beyond contingent reward behavior in relation to leader effectiveness and satisfaction.
This finding offers further support to what Bass described as the augmentation phenomenon resulting in potentially superior group performance [Bass & Avolio, 1997; Waldman et al, 1990] (Gellis, 2001, p. 23).” “Operationally, the augmentation effect has been demonstrated through the use of regression analysis [Cohn & Cohen, 1983]. A note of caution is suggested in interpreting some of the reported relationships due to the potential for single-source bias and data aggregation procedures [Dansereau, Alutto, & Yammarino, 1984, Howard, 1994…Neverthe less, the same pattern of findings was obtained in other studies with different samples [Hater & Bass, 1988, Waldman et al, 1990] (Gellis, 2001, p. 23).”
B. Transformational Leadership in the Social Work Context: The importance of Leader Continuity and Co-Worker Support
This empirical study used the same definition for transformational leadership, using the concepts regarding charisma, a strong relationship with the leader, and the 4 I’s. The study was done in a Swedish social service organization that specialized in social welfare services, care to the elderly, and disabled individuals. The premise of the study concerned two important employee attitudes: commitment and clarity in the work place in their interaction with transformational leaders.
The study developed two separate hypotheses. The first hypothesis: Transformational leadership is positively related to role clarity and organizational commitment. The second hypothesis: The positive effect of transformational leadership on role clarity and commitment is moderated by leader continuity and co-worker support (Tafvelin et al., 2014).
“Leadership in social work has attracted growing attention from both research and practice…interest in leadership may be the many changes social service organizations have undergone during the last decades…with even more anticipated organizational changes due to the legal, social, technological and competitive circumstances, good leadership is seen as being the key to retain employees and to handle the rapid pace of changing today’s social service organisms [Lawler, 2007] (Tafvelin et al., 2014, p. 887).”
The limited research regarding social service agencies and leadership have been done mostly in the USA, and in Canada (Tafvelin, 2014) leaving European social agencies study and research involving the topic virtually untapped. Thefore this study attempts to answer the questions that involve leadership roles in social service agencies in the Swedish context. The study examined the impact of front line managers using transformational leadership skills in conjunction with a model of vision, empowerment, role/position clarity, and employee commitment.
“The discussion of social work leadership more or less began with Brillant’s (1986) analysis of social worker’s resistance to take on leadership roles. She saw leadership as the missing ingredient in social work education but emphasized that leadership is an important aspect of the professional role for social workers…she suggested that social work students were passionate about direct practice with clients, not with assuming leadership roles…her conclusion was that schools of social work must take on responsibility in developing leadership potential among social worker (Tafvelin et al., 2014, p. 888).”
Changes in the past two decades are part of the constant, continuous, and daily benchmarks that impact social work organizations. The development of new theory, an exchange of work theory among different professions, and those who merge and morph/launch into the profession bring new information as well as different perspectives to align with the profession. Research has facilitated the process for change in the delivery of services along with the manner of management and leadership among subordinates.
“Even though these kinds of studies give valuable and important insights into the premises of social work leadership, they do not offer any information to what kind of leadership would be effective, or have positive effects for employees and clients. One approach to study effects of leadership in social work used by a small body of recent studies has been to apply transformational leadership theory (Tafvelin et al., 2014, p. 889).”
“In addition to examining the direct effect of transformational leadership on role clarity and commitment, we also want to explore the influence of organizational factors that may facilitate or hinder the effect of transformational leadership in social work (Tafvelin et al., 2014, p. 891).” The sample in the research involved randomly selected employees from records of those with permanent or long-term temporary employment which included382 participants. Questionnaires were distributed to the 382 participants that were generated by mail delivery to their residence.
Each of the participants were informed that their participation was voluntary and that they were able to withdraw from the process at any time. In addition an envelope with postage was provided to return the document directly to the research project. There were 158 respondents to the survey which provided a 46% response rate. The sample included 125 (79%) female, and 33 (21%) male participants. “The sample was representative of the population, the entire social service organism, with respect to age, gender, and employment terms [permanent or temporary] (Tafvelin et al., 2014, p. 892).”
The study was measured with the MLQ that was developed by Bass and Avolio (1995). “Respondents were asked to rate how often their leader engages in behaviors specific to each dimension on a five-point scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4 (often, if not always). The present study employed a Swedish translation factor which is consistent with previous research…we then examined the bivariate correlation between the interactional and main effect models described earlier, we followed the hierarchical multiple regression procedures described by Aiken and West (1991).”
“In a first step our independent variable was transformational was entered into the regression…In our second step, co-worker support or leader continuity was added to the regression. In the third, and final step, the interaction term, the cross-product of the two independent variables (Transformational leadership and either co-worker support or leader continuity) was included into the regression, now reflecting the joint effect of the two variables. This three-step procedure was repeated in four separate regressions, two with commitment and two with role clarity as dependent variable, to test the interaction effect of the two moderators: leader continuity and co-worker support. Before running the regressions, all independent variables were mean centered in order to decrease the risk of collinearity [Aiken and West, 1991] (Tafvelin et al, 2014, p. 894).”
The results indicate that an examination between the relationships of transformational leadership and co-worker support revealed strong positive connection. “Positive connections were found between the two independent variables role of clarity and commitment…further examination of the data revealed that co-worker support was positively associated with both role clarity, commitment, while leader continuity was not associated with either role clarity, commitment or co-worker support (Tafvelin et al, 2014, p. 895).” The test of the hypothesis showed: “hypothesis 1, we found significant, positive relationships between transformation leadership and role clarity as well as between transformational leadership and commitment. Co-worker support was significantly related to both role clarity and commitment, while leader continuity was not significantly related to any of the outcome variables. In hypothesis 2, co-worker support and leader continuity were predicted to moderate the relationship between transformational leadership outcomes, such that stronger relationships with role clarity and commitment would occur when employees experienced high co-worker support and had worked with their leader for a longer period of time (Tafvelin et al., 2014, p. 895).”
The authors of the research data indicated that the correlation coefficient involving the measurement of the variables, transformation leadership, role clarity, and commitment were statistically positive. In addition, a second validity examination indicated that there was a positive indicator for transformational leadership among commitment when the worker spent more time on the job with their leader. Finally, the test measure a positive effect of transformational leadership with commitment and it seemed to be more positive among workers with an increase in years of work experience and co-worker support (Tafvelin et al., 2014, p. 895).
“From a practice standpoint, our findings demonstrate the benefits of transformational leadership in social work in keeping employees committed and clear of their assignment, which are two important employee attitudes in times of organizational change [Begley and Czajka, 1993; Mukherjee and Malhotra, 2006]…From a research perspective, our findings are a piece of the puzzle to further our understanding of social work leadership. Putting the pieces of social work leadership research together brings remarkable clarity on the matter. Our study, in line with previous studies in social work, indicates that transformational leadership has positive effects in social work organizations…In our study we found that time with the leader and support from co-workers enhanced the effect of transformational leadership. This adds to research and theory on which processes and mechanisms that contribute to the effects of transformational leadership (Tafvelin et al., 2014, p. 898).”
C. Consideration for Future Consequences (CFC) as an Antecedent of Transformational Leadership Behavior: The Moderating effects of Perceived Dynamic Work environment
In this research study the authors worked upon the same definition as those presented previously for that of a transformational leader. “Despite these promising effects, people still know very little about why some leaders are more transformational than others [Bono & Judge, 2004; Pawar & Eastman, 1997; Rubin, Munz & Bommer, 2005]. As a result, many scholars have called for research to explore the base or antecedents of transformational leadership behavior [e.g., Bass,1998; Bono & Juge, 2004; Rubin et al., 2005]. We chose CFC for three reasons, theoretical relevance is the first] (Zhang et a., 2014, p. 329).”
The researchers indicated that they consider individual differences to be the key to distant decision making and outcomes therefore they have utilized the CFC premise of high validity, stable trait value, and theory relevance to research their five hypothesis:
“Hypothesis 1: Consideration of future consequences is positively related to transformational leadership behavior.
Hypothesis 2: The positive relationship between consideration of future consequences and transformational leadership behavior is stronger in stable rather than in dynamic work environments.
Hypothesis 3: Consideration of future consequences is positively related to leadership effectiveness.
Hypothesis 4: The positive relationship between consideration of future consequences and leadership effectiveness will be mediated by transformational leadership behavior.
Hypothesis 5: The mediation of transformational leadership behavior underlies the overall moderating effect of dynamic work environment on the relationship between CFC and leadership effectiveness in such a way that the positive relationship between CFC and transformational leadership behavior s stronger in low rather than high dynamic work environments, and transformational leadership behavior is positively related to leadership effectiveness (Zhang et al., 2014, p. 332-335).”
The methodology used in the study included two separate samples for their research data. One, included rating questionnaires to 364 part-time (leaders, supervisors, and their subordinates) MBA students from a university in China; with divers organizations, with an average age of 36.71, that involved 59 men and 46 women; this was a voluntary process, the documents were coded for data analysis, and 105 participants and their followers returned the questionnaires. Two, an on-line questionnaire for 57 leaders, 39 men, and 18 women with an average age of 34.58, and 56 responded to the questionnaires. The responses were measured with a seven-point response scale with a value of 1-strongly disagree to 7 strongly agree.
A control variable was used to invalidate any noise/deviation. Other variables that were measured include transformational leadership behavior, leadership effectiveness, perceived work environment, openness to experience and conscientiousness, in addition to CFC. The model, also, used ANOVA analysis with on-line managers as the independent variable and transformational leadership behavior and its six dimensions as he dependent variable (Zhang et al., 2014, p. 337).
“The results show that all measures have adequate levels of reliability. The inter-correlations show that consideration of future consequences and perceived dynamic work environment were positively and significantly related to both transformational leadership and leadership effectiveness. Transformational leadership was positively related to leadership effectiveness. These results provided initial support to our hypothesis (Zhang, et al., 2014, p. 337).” “Hypothesis 1 results showed a significant main effect of CFC on transformational leadership behavior, even with openness to experience…Hypothesis 2 shows that the coefficient for the interaction term of CFC by perceived dynamic work environment was statistically significant and supported…Hypothesis 3 results showed a significant main effect on CFC on leadership effectiveness; high scores by subordinates indicated that the leader was more likely to be perceived as a transformational leader by their subordinates…Hypothesis 4 results show that the relationship between CFC and leadership effectiveness was significantly mediated by transformational leadership behavior; specifically involving from behavior to effectiveness…Hypothesis 5 results demonstrate that in the low perceived dynamic work environment condition, CFC was positively related to transformational leadership behavior; in high perceived work environment the link is not significant.
D. Highly political governmental agencies that transform the manner of customer services to customers in the Bureau of Motor Vehicles (BMV) in the State of Indiana; Going from worst to the best in the country.
The BMV in the State of Indiana had developed a reputation for exhibiting a lackluster means of customer services to the public. The state agency was straddled with limited resources, extremely long waiting periods for service to the public, dysfunction of government services, low employee morale, and criminal conduct within the agency/fraudulent transactions. There appeared to be a sense of resignation among the workers/subordinates in the work place. The BMV had been referred to as the worst agency in the state; an agency that was subject to legislative restrictions and regulations that regulated organizational behavior.
Governor Mitch Daniels instituted a change in management when he made the decision to hire an individual with management skills that were based upon retail management. In 2005 Joel Silverman was hired as the bureau Commissioner for the Indiana BMV agency. Silverman’s reputation held him to be an individual who heralded a campaign to market a group towards enhanced shopping experiences in retail sporting goods. His leadership style and leadership traits established a transformative approach by bringing on board several middle level managers who, also, had work experience in retail management, with similar approaches to enhancing services to the public (Austrom, 2013, p. 2).
Silverman’s transformative management style in developing a strategy for tasks behaviors, and establishing an improved work environment established the Indiana BMV to become the best customer service agency towards the public consumer for the third time in five years (between 2005-2012). His focus was based upon two important objectives; hiring new staff that would implement a transformative method of providing services in the work environment, and clarification of the tasks objectives with staff who worked in the public domain.
The prominent objective of this transformative objective was commitment to the process, maintaining proficient records and documentation, and establishing options for the consumer that were easily accessed. In addition managers were able to utilize a metric system to evaluate workers, and to evaluate the customer experience with the organization (this included the installation of software, and cameras in the agency to monitor fraud, error rates, and customer experiences). These tools, in addition to implementing a change in the attitude in middle level managers in an approach towards a benefit to the consumer, was the impetus that catapulted a significant impact towards change in a government agency that increased successful customer experiences, in addition to subordinates’ experiences in the work environment who where managed by a transformative leader.
E. New public management and professionals in the public sector. What new patterns beyond opposition?
The authors of this article provide the reader with a comprehensive study regarding change that impacts organizations involving the (American) educational milieu and business organizations, medical profession/physicians, in Germany, and in France. The data was retrieved from an empirical study that was done in the State of Indiana. The study was based upon the public sector and an ideology that management had the power to recompose occupations within by using “natural laws of the market” (Bezes, et. al., 2012, p. e2). “That ideology has proved catastrophic even in the business milieu where it began. We, the professionals of care, social work, education, and justice, information culture, refuse to concede that such an ideology today should cause the ‘bankruptcy’ of care, social work, education, and justice, information and culture” (http://www.appeldesappels.org/l-appel-des-appels-l.htm) (Bezes, et. al., 2012, p. e2).” The protest was in response to the position of the medical profession, in addition to a protest to a social movement that focused on an opposition to budget and staff cuts that resulted in open hostility towards management.
New Public management (NPM) was the basis of this fight for change in organizational management purposes. Their subordinates/followers believed that these managerial methods threatened their autonomy as workers in the organizations. NPM established five principles that should develop the positions of their advocates. “These principles included;
1. separating strategy, leadership and control from implementation and execution
2. fragmenting vertical bureaucracies by setting up independent administrative agencies through decentralization, or by empowering consumers
3. systematically resorting to market mechanisms (competition between public actors and with the private sector, individualization of incentives, externalization
4. transforming bureaucratic hierarchies by reinforcing the responsibilities and autonomy of the officials in charge of implementing state action
5. introducing result management base on achieving objectives, measuring and evaluation performance, and developing new forms of control within contract-driven programs (Bezes et. al., 2012, p.p. e2-e3).”
There was a debate about how these changes could be interpreted and implemented, who would be the implementing party, and what would be the greatest interest for the worker involved with the management body. The question was what would be the impact of the proposed changes, and which sectors of the organization would have the impact of these proposed changes? The authors believed that the basis of the proposed changes in managerial organizations for the subordinates/followers caused great commitment, conflict, and challenge for the struggle for autonomy that was the heart of the debate (Bezes, 2012, p. e4). “Little empirical proof is available of a directly imposed managerial order and measurable loss of autonomy. In public bureaucracies as in large private service companies (Brivot, 2010), professionals’ attitudes with respect to the aims and nature of the new managerial systems are certainly ambivalent (Bezes, et. al., 2012, p. e23).”
The authors, also, argue that the struggle for autonomy is fruitless if it is not supported by the profession. They have written that the justification for workers’ demands for legitimate autonomy, which should be guaranteed as a component of the organization, places constant pressure on numerous stakeholders. In addition they see the worker/subordinate/follower as individuals who stand up for the right to provide the best services to the consumer; to refuse to have the right to define these services striped from them by the management in their organization. The argument towards worker autonomy seems to be a moot point if not shared by the organization and the managers who lead them.
“In numerous ways, governments which are centralizing and regulatory are also intent on demonstrating value in their public service budgets and seem to be using NPM to redefine professionalism and accountability as measurable (Bezes, et.al., 2012. P. e43).” The authors foresee a possible decline/demise of the concept of professionalism, while simultaneously acknowledging that occupational professionalism continues in operation today (2012).
F. Psychopathy in the workplace: The knowns and unknowns
There have been some studies that involve transformational leadership in the work place and what they describe as the “dark side” of the theory of managing followers. Smith and Lilienfeld (2013) have attempted to research this topic as it pertains to management, psychopathology, and the ills that are created as the result of the use of the phenomena. They have researched and investigated the theory of leaders/managers in relationship with their workers/subordinates/followers and the impact that such qualities (charisma, power, meanness, manipulation) contributed to the impact of organizational management, and/or psychopathology in the work environment.
The authors studied the available research (they have indicated that research that involves the topic of transformational leadership is limited as of their 2013 available data and this void can be dated back to the late 1990’s) that resulted in a number of varied opinions. One opinion that was established when reviewing data from a study completed by Babiak in 1995 indicated “Without exception, they have assumed that psychopaths routinely wreck havoc in the workplace, engaging in dishonesty, verbal aggression, crime, and pitting employees against one another (Smith, 2013, p. 2).” In the same venue they question the degree of this concept; how much is well supported data and how much is hype?
In addition the authors provide the reader with a discussion that involves the exaggerated efforts of the media and their efforts to report toxic employers, and those who are purposefully destructive to both their employers as well as to their employees. They have included in this group the managers who worked for Eron, Wall Street Bankers, Bernie Madoff, and those individuals who have created a climate of chaos while simultaneously achieving personal profit and success. They have, also, included those managers who are able to convince the public that they may be the ideal for management positions, while they conceal their darkness with poise and charm (Smith, 2013, p. 3). Their argument goes back and forth with research findings that on one hand indicate that the concept of psychopathology in the work environment among managers can be adaptive displaying positive adjustment in some settings, yet on the other hand show a subclinical presentation.
The study done by Babiak et. al. in 2010 investigated the relationship between psychopathology and leadership. Their study used a sample of 203 corporate individuals selected by their organization in management positions. The variables that were reviewed involved job performance prevalence, and identifying corporations globally. The method of measurement used included the Psychopathology Checklist which has been used to determine psychopathology levels. The construct variables that were used were PCL-R which measures violence and passive avoidance learning.
The scores from this measurement tool were converted to PCL-SV which is a comparison variable that looks at community samples and the corporate sample. Upon revealing their findings the researchers concluded that their corporate sample had more scores that scored in the high range for psychopathology than their community sample scores. They believed that these results suggest that psychopathology may be a “double-edged sword” that fosters the maladaptive behaviors as well as the adaptive behaviors in the work environment (Smith, 2013, p. 11).
In another study that the authors investigated, completed by Westerlaken and Woods in 2013, a search was initiated to determine any association between a person who displays psychopathic personality traits and the full range leadership model proposed by Avolis and Bass in 1991. Their study sample included 300 undergraduate and postgraduate students in management positions. The tool that measured the variables contained a “nine factor model of transformational, transactional (e.g., use of recognition and rewards to motivate followers), and passive (e.g., laissez-faire inclination of waiting for problems to arise before taking action) leadership styles, using the self-report Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (bass & Avolio, 1997) (Smith, 2013, p. 11).”
In concluding, the result of the inquiry/questionnaire indicated that individuals who display high levels of psychopathology were less likely to be defined as transformational leaders. The authors warn the reader that the study has several limitations (a reliance on self-reports due to people being limited by an ability to gauge their own leadership abilities). They have suggested a need for more research that will include an element of observer reporting/interviews. Another factor from the study done by Lilienfeld, Walden, et.al., with a focus on “toxic bosses”, found a link between “certain psychotic traits and effective leadership in U.S. presidents (Smith, 2013, p. 12).” Finally the authors find that though the results may be speculative and suggestive, but not conclusive, the results of their findings suggest that an overlap between the results of the findings can be an important fact to extend the same findings to the world of business management.
In conclusion, the authors have investigated a few studies that involve corporations, political areas, and self-report regarding psychopathology, leaders involving leadership among their subordinates in business management. The investigations, their findings, and their results are not conclusive; they appear to be more speculative. While there may be some evidence regarding managers who exhibit the “dark side” of their personality traits in their efforts to manage their staff, more research is needed to make more definitive resolutions and comparisons regarding transformational leaders, clinical presentations, and its impact on the leader-worker relationship in the work environment.
G. Individualized leadership: A qualitative study of senior executive leaders
Wallis et. al. informs the reader that the relationship between the leader and their subordinate/followers (according to the research on charismatic, transformational and servant leadership) is an essential part of the leader/worker relationship (p. 182). The authors have investigated this important dyad by looking at the two important roles that involve the transformational leader (Bass, 9189, 1990) and the Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) theory. This theory espouses that these two roles in this dyadic relationship will determine, and it is predictive of the outcomes (Graen et.al., 1995, 1997), as well as a greater construct of leadership (p. 183).
As previously mentioned in this document (Transformational Leadership Theory section) the authors have based their data on utilizing the LMX theory and transformation leadership that motivates, and develops subordinates to achieve goals that are greater than their expectations. The authors have examined models by Podsakpff et. al. (1990) and seven other theorists’ models that cover behaviors indicative of transformational leaders. They have identified “six key behaviors of a transformative leader: a) identifies and articulates a vision; b)provides an appropriate model; c) fosters the acceptance of group goals; d) has high performance expectations (inspirational motivation); e) provides individualized support (individualized consideration); and f). offers intellectual stimulation.
This study suggests that subordinates view their leaders under this model as encouraging them to do their personal best, having a sense of mutual trust especially in an ambiguous situation. The study, also, suggests three propositions that are involved in the process:
Proposition I: The leader perceives the subordinate to have self worth, therefore the subordinate views their leader as supportive, providing a safe environment to share personal issues.
Proposition II. The leader is attentive to the needs and feelings of their subordinates, confidence in their integrity, motivation and their abilities which creates feelings of self-worth for the subordinate.
Proposition III. The leader displays significant behaviors with their subordinates that vary in degree, yet are influential and create a strong dyad.
This study was implemented in a western (USA) health care insurance company. The company is described to have had two million HMO, PPO, and Indemnity members, with over two billion dollars in premium assets. The organization operated with 400 employees located in 30 separate locations. In addition, the company was recognized to be successful based on their reputation for growth, being competitive, and by offering innovative products to their consumers on a regular basis. Their senior leaders classified the company as an advocate for positive change in the medical milieu, and their involvement towards reform at the state level. Their efforts improved costs, quality, in addition to health care services to the public.
In reading this study we can see that they selected their participants by choosing 10 senior vice presidents, and 10 vice presidents, all of whom reported directly to the CEO. The average level of education was high, with 14 years of work experience in the organization. The age of the participants ranged from 30 years to 50 years of age. The interviews were taken on a one-on-one basis in on-site conference rooms. Each worker was questioned regarding their own particular dyad with their leader. There were 11 dyads, four of the eleven were male-female, the other dyads were female-female. The results of these interviews were coded with transcripts, debriefing summaries, and field journal notations. This qualitative study used QSR NUD*IST Software, version 4.0, and coded with background data from the group questions, and interview questions (Wallis et. al., 2011, p.p. 186-200).
The results of this study may have been biased by three limitations: 1). The scope of the measurement (one insurance agency, only used 6 leaders and 11 followers, a small sample limits the ability to generalize to other populations); 2) the use of only one single event to measure, a small sample limits the transfer of knowledge base; and 3) the study heavily depended upon the participant’s ability to have very good recall of events; this may have hampered the measure of self-worth for accuracy in measurement for their tool.
In conclusion, the study was intended to provide data regarding the use of transformational leadership and the LMX theory with workers and subordinates in a health care insurance setting. The data was to have results that measured the closeness in relationship dyads between subordinates, their leaders and the impressions that the leaders encouraged in their followers in the work environment. The results appeared to be promising.
The study reports that subordinates developed positive regard for their leader who initially exhibited positive aspects of their management skills/traits: concern for safety, self-worth, feelings, and the integrity of the worker. The workers believed that their leader was able to establish a close relationship between them, and that the leader was supportive of their efforts. “Transformational leadership behaviors were found to be present and influential in the development of leadership in each of the dyads (Wallis, et. al., 2011, p. 201).”
VI. Conclusions/Summary
The Social Work Profession has been an important part of helping, supporting, and encouraging individuals, groups, and organizations since the beginning of time in building/enhancing relationship skills. The premise of the profession began in times of the church, and alms houses that served the needy, homeless children/orphanages, and providing for women without work or husbands. The spirit of giving and support to the community continued in the times of King Henry the VIII, and Monks who intervened to support women and children involved in child labor laws and extended work days. Their method of helping, supporting, and providing empathy to the disadvantaged involved leaders who encouraged their subordinate workers to be encouraged in their work efforts.
In the early 1900’s Mary Richmond and the COS established the guidelines for casework investigations, and determined who was eligible for social welfare services. Later Jane Adams established the Hull Settlement house in Chicago, Illinois that was modeled after Settlement Houses in England. In 1969 the Child Care Act was passed. This act was to determine the guidelines for Welfare programs, Day Care Centers, Day Care Homes, Day Care group homes, and the State mandated policy and procedures for these entities.
During the presidency of Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, and William Clinton the legislation that regulated Social services developed, changed and evolved numerous times. When social work came under the auspicious of governmental agencies (federal, and state) the managerial roles (upper management, middle management, and lower management) included implementing policy, procedure, mandates and best practices. These policies would determine the disbursement of resources/training/skill development, financial benefits, and legal mandates that would define and regulate Child Welfare Agencies.
These changes not only impacted the plight of families in need of support services they also had a significant impact on the provision of services for the service worker…the social worker. The social worker in context with their co-workers, the leader/supervisor/manager, and the organization has been the subject for meeting the goals of the agency, completing the tasks of the agency, and adequate and proper management of the work staff to meet the goals and tasks behaviors established by upper management, and State mandates.
Transformational Leadership approach has been one method of managing the subordinate under the charge of the leader. Northouse defines a leader as “Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2013, p. 5).” In addition he defines the transformational leader by saying “Transformational leadership involves a leader who encourages subordinates to excel in their morality and their level of motivation. Transactional leadership involves an action and exchange/reward for the action that is enacted by the subordinate (Northouse, 2013).”
The short literature review for this assignment involved making a determination whether transformational leadership positively impacts the social work profession in their provision of services. It seems that two things are clear here. One that the research done, up until this point in time involving this topic, is limited, and that, two, the research that has been done is limited in its scope to help others understand the process. A critical analysis of the data appears to indicate that upon the implementation of government regulatory mandates, the level of transformational leadership in the organization ceased to exist; the focus seemed to be placed on business outcomes, and organizational success; transactional behaviors.
“It is important to note that managers tend to model their own leadership style after that of their immediate supervisors. Thus if more lower-level employees will emulate transformational behavior-they will be likely to act as transformational leaders as they rise in the organization (Bass, 2000, p. 26).” The available research done here indicates that the use of transformational leadership, managers who align with their subordinates to facilitate proper services to the client tend to provide increased satisfaction in work-loads; in addition to client satisfaction in service implementation; as well as the positive dyad relationship between leader and subordinate.
This paper examined several separate literature reviews. The first review/research data (Gellis, 2001) was established in America. It involved clinical social work staff and their leaders in the medical milieu; the method of inquiry involved a pilot survey and a cross-sectional survey. The second review/research data (Tafvelin et as., 2014) was established in Sweden in a social service agency that employed mostly older, more experienced workers who provided services to social welfare, the elderly, and disabled clients; the method of inquiry was done by questionnaires.
The third review/research data (Zhang et al., 2014) was done in a university setting in China; the study involved MBA leaders, and their subordinates responding to scaled questionnaires. Research project I and 2 used the MLQ methodology to measure clarity, and commitment of the leader with their subordinates. Research project 3 tested five separate hypotheses’ to determine the effect of future consequences (CFC) of the impact of management styles of the transformational leader. The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh reviews/researches was information that was gathered from studies done in the State of Indiana and the State of Illinois once the scope of the search was narrowed. The data that was provided shows the results of the implementation of positive use of transformational leadership in agencies that provide customer services to the general public.
When the governor of the State Of Indiana hired a manager with a background in retail services to customers the state BMV agency went from being the worst in the State to being the best in the nation three times in five years. The new manager brought staff to the agency with similar work backgrounds as him, similar work ethics, and a collaborative team effort to provide good customer services to the public client. Their methods included changing the environment, by-passing governmental regulations, and implementing new methods that would manage fraud, insubordination, and mismanagement as a whole. The manager encouraged his staff to do more, to attain better efforts, and the staff felt good about the work task and behaviors that changed the hierarchical role of managing the organization.
Each of these separate research projects, each in different countries, involving different cultures of perspective, and each involving different age groups of the participants and organizational milieus (medical, MBA, Social Welfare, State governmental agency) have shown significant findings that transformational leadership has a positive impact on leader subordinates. The findings seem clear that more experienced workers, workers who spend more time with their leaders and with co-worker’s support, and future forecasts of time spent with leaders who utilize transformation leadership tend to do well in the (public) social work profession and it’s delivery of services to client populations.
Some may argue that there may be other factors, factors that positively impact the appearance that this form of leadership is a significant variable in leader-subordinate dyads. We cannot know the depth of this inquiry without further research on the topic.
VII. The Need for Future Research
“…I read what my father wrote concerning the training of analysts: “A scheme of training for analysts has still to be created. It must include elements from the mental sciences, from psychology, the history of civilization and sociology, as well as from anatomy, biology and the study of evolution…an ideal which can and must be realized” (1926b, p. 252) (Anna Freud, 1969, p. 511).”
The education process of the social work analyst has evolved and yet it remains the same in practice. Anna Freud writes that her father, the revered Sigmund Freud has written (1926) his impression of the manner that the analyst is to be trained to work effectively with the patient/client population. In 1926 Feud wrote that this training should include methods involving psychology, sociology, biology, the history of civilization and neurology. In this present day of 2014, higher institutes of education in social work are training their students in these exact subjects (with an inclusion of ethics, and higher education). Was it a sense of foreboding that he had, or is this clearly the way to determine the best subject matter, as a way to and a means to the best understanding of the development of the nature of mankind?
Regarding the matter of research…we all agree…even among the authors here in this short paper to find data regarding the use of transformational leadership in social work with client populations…that research is a given/part of the process, something that should continue, the way to gather data to make sense of and to make an impression on our reality. The use of technology in today’s era demands that we continue to do more research especially given the history of constant and evolving change for the social work profession in our history/society. In addition, very little is understood in regard to the available information regarding Transformational Leadership used in the social work profession. When you know more, you can do more.
Therefore there is a need to research all aspects of clarity, commitment, presence of the leader with workers, co-worker support, and the impact of perceived attitudes of workers with the transformational leader in the work environment in the social work profession. This short paper explored the research process that was done with relatively small samples in America (State of Indiana and State of Illinois), Sweden, and China. There are many more countries to examine, and many more individuals with their own perspective of what they look for in a leader. Every day that passes, every era in which we live brings us into a different world. With these differences must come new updated information with a reflection on information from our past that will take us into tomorrow and into new developments.
VIII. Application of Three Relevant Leaders Using Transformational Leadership in the Social Work Profession
A. Jane Adams, Hull House Settlement House Chicago, Illinois
Jane Adams attended college in Rockford, Illinois. She traveled extensively in Europe after an experience that challenged her health. Upon her return from Europe she purchased a small home where she lived with her female partner, on the south side of Chicago, Illinois. Their home developed into the Hull House for immigrant families who were living in the United States. Jane began to assist the families to assimilate into American culture by creating avenues for socialization, family structure, and justice in their community. Her strategy towards developmental leadership became known as transformational leadership in her efforts to lift up and to build up the citizenship of the American immigrant.
“Transformational leadership, the authors argue, represents the idea that leaders and followers are dynamic and always changing. Transformational leaders maintain a capacity to learn from their peers, while they ‘unite with followers to pursue…the common good. Jane Adams was a visionary leader, empowering those she served to be all they could be. (Preskill &Brookfield, 2009, p.7).”
B. Mary Richmond Charity Organization Society (COS) Early 1900’s U.S.A.
Mary Richmond overcame poverty, poor vision and health struggles, and a lack of education to become a teacher, an author, and the head of the COS in the early 19th century in America. Mary began her work as a clerk in the office of prominent men who were teaching, lecturing and developing programs for schools in the social work profession. Mary was mentored, trained and elevated in her position in the agency. She later developed the protocol for case managers, who were mostly wealthy married women (Friendly Visitors). These women visited the homes of poor families to encourage them to live a “good and healthy life” in which their life and their “soul” would be enriched.
“Richmond’s progressive civic philosophy of social work was largely informed by the social gospel movement. She strove to find practical applications of the teachings of Christianity in response to the social problems that accompanied rapid industrialization, urbanization, and poverty. At the same time, her tireless efforts and personal example, as a woman, created an appealing, if ambiguous, path for other professionals. A century later her legacy continues to echo in social work and welfare reform (Agnew, jan, 2004, p. 1-304).”
C. Wilfred R. Bion, Psychiatrist/Group Therapist London, England
Wilfred Bion’s theory regarding psychoanalysis with groups is told by the author Malcolm Pines. Pines informs the reader that he worked closely in coordination with Bion during the decade between 1940 to 1950. During that time Pines came to know Bion as a man with great knowledge, a great passion for his work, one who was steadfast, and a mystery to most in his profession. Bion joined the British army during World War I. He later attended Oxford University and studied history and even later enrolled in medical school in London, England. Bion became interested in the field of psychiatry and the new “dynamic psychosis.” He began working at the Tavistock Clinic and he spent seven years working in the psychotherapeutic facility in Hatfield.
During World War II Bion was one of the first psychiatrists from the clinic to begin work in psychoanalysis and training in analysis. In 1938 he worked with John Rickman, married his first wife, who was an actress, and he published his first paper on the topic of psychological asepsis (infection). This began his reputation as having an ability to have developed the tenacity, the insight and the intellect that would produce his social psychiatric innovations that would propel his career in the field of group therapy. Pines describes Bion as being an individual who was creative, always conceptualizing, and analyzing the written word and the empirical data that was available. Bion began his second training analysis with Melanie Klein (object relations theorist). His progress in his work with groups led to his progressive work in analysis.
The profession of psychiatry was developed under the medical model of treatment and care for the individual. Bion was accepted into the clinic milieu as a member of a team of psychiatrist who would interview individuals in their effort to improve the quality of Cadet Officer Trainees in the War Office Selection Board (WOSB). When the board sought to weed out individuals thought to be unacceptable to lead their forces Bion suggested the concept of leaderless groups. His suggestion involved a series of group situations, from the least structured to the most structured situations. Formal leadership titles were removed, and the board looked for patterns in leadership and development among the cadets. The procedure was called Spontaneous Situations that involved Group Tasks where the cadets were to perform and solve practical problems while they developed a strategy to find a resolution to the challenge.
Bion’s appearance and his engagement with others gave him the appearance of being a general. His military background and his experience after joining the Royal Tank Army at the age of 17, and becoming a Brigade Major at the age of 19, provided him with the ability to become perceptive and influential in his profession. Bion became known as an individual with structure and organization; an innovative leader; ethical; with a sense of foreboding; proactive for the profession of psychiatry and group work; outspoken and steadfast; and to have a good grasp for concepts and content. During early 1940 there was no framework for the medical model with groups. The profession made use of social psychiatry, social psychology, and sociology. By 1950 the profession began work with psychoanalysis and began establishing a framework to use in their work moving forward. Their psychoanalysis model was intended to be a model of “sui generis” (Latin: unique in character) (Pines, 2000).
The WOSB evolved in their efforts to improve their selection process of leaders in the military. Bion was selected in 1948 to lead a special mission that was intended to examine the use of psychiatry with battle front soldiers. It appeared that soldiers who were hospitalized experiencing traumatic injury on the battlefield seemed to have deteriorated; they arrived at the hospital in a schizophrenic-like state. Bion seemed to have developed a theory that signaled that this traumatic injury, in conjunction with the exhaustion of battle on the front line caused a collapse of the brain/cognitive ability to be resilient, leading to a compromised physical condition for soldiers once they were in a resting state.
I view Bion as becoming a Transformation Leader to his subordinates in the profession of Psychiatry (psychiatry/medical model is the cornerstone of the social work profession). Bion seemed to have encouraged hisubordinates, to enhance their learning towards theory development and taking another look at the process of psychosis, he exhibited high moral values, appeared to be a strong role model, in addition to having developed concept and competence. These are all qualities that are found in a Transformational Leader (Northouse, 2013, p.p.185-217). Bion encouraged others who came to encounter him as a leader to do more, to try harder, and to seek out the best strategy to service the client.
In addition, I, also, view Bion as being an Exemplary Leader to his subordinates in the profession of Psychiatry. Bion seemed to make challenges meaningful, to create power all around himself, and to ensure and encourage self-leadership among others. These are all qualities that are found in an Exemplary Leader (Kouzes et. al, 2003, ch 5, p.p. 63-78).
In the 1950’s Bion continued in his profession using his time writing papers/articles and he began seeing individual clients in his private practice. Slowly he contemplated leaving the clinic and the work he began with the Staff Group. Bion had encouraged others in his profession with the idea of group think, group culture, the causation factors of depression, anger, and confusion in the group, the leader who facilitates the process of emotions and conflict in the group, in addition to the duality of power in the group. This duality included 1. Power, and 2. Sovereignty…saying that you cannot have one without the other in the process of change. Bion coined the term basic assumption (ba), and the good face and the bad face of sovereignty. After his last visit to the Staff Group for tea he never returned to agency work. At that time most of his work in psychoanalysis involved private practice with clients.
IX. Personal Reflection on Leadership Theory and an Application of the Approach
I have worked in the social work profession for many years. In that time I have worked as a worker/subordinate/follower, and as a leader/manager/teacher. In my position as a worker I have worked as a Child Welfare Specialist, a Child Protection Investigator, and a Day Care Licensing Worker. In my work as a leader I have worked as an Assistant Child Welfare Supervisor, as a counselor/therapist, and as an Adjunct Instructor in Higher Education teaching Individual and Family Therapy. Each of these positions has required, at one time or another, that my role shift to be a helper/support in another office/county for other State of Illinois Child Welfare Workers. In addition, my work experiences have allowed me to work with supervisors, managers, and directors with various styles of management/leadership.
My leadership courses have helped me to better understand the different types of leadership models and how they have been determined. I am now better informed regarding the types of leadership models that have been used by managers and supervisors in my work history. I have also come away with a greater appreciation as to a when to or when best to use a particular form of leadership. I am now aware that the leadership approach to use in a particular situation depends on a few determinants. One, is the type of organization where the leader is employed. Second, it involves the subordinate level of ability to function and complete the task at hand. Third, it involves the level of the hierarchy or whether the organizational function is working on a vertical level, a horizontal level, and the ability to access resources for the organization.
If the leader is using situational leadership it will be necessary to access and access again from time to time to determine when the leader will need to direct, coach, support, or delegate with their subordinates. If the leader is using transformational leadership style the leader will not only assess the functioning level of his followers, but also encourage, lift up and motivate their followers to go beyond what they can even expect of themselves. I can now determine, as I reflect back, that most of the leaders in my past have used this form of leadership at some time and on some level. I do, also, believe that as a leader in my work capacity I, too, have used this form of leadership only I was not aware of it at that time.
I have been unwavering in the past, as a Child Welfare Assistant Supervisor, by encouraging my subordinate workers in Child Welfare Services to plan ahead, to think of alternate solutions to a situation, to reflect, to network, and to never stop asking questions when in doubt and simultaneously giving praise as a reward for any accomplishments. As an adjunct instructor I always encouraged (using the Socratic method of challenging the student who learns) students to do a little bit more than what the assignment is asking them to do; to stretch themselves academically, to think critically and to look for answers from history as well as what may be coming down the road…be prepared and be aware of your surroundings as well as that of those around you.
There is much to learn from a reflection of the work that we do as leaders with our followers and subordinates. I am sure, as it is reflected in the research done in this short paper of this. “But as the authors make clear, no tool can help the leader who lacks self-knowledge. That’s part of what we mean when we say that breakthrough leadership is personal (Collingwood, HBR, dec. 2001, p. 8).” Subordinates learn from the leader as well. The Social Work Profession began their work managing their subordinate workers implementing transformational leadership models.
In time, it appears, that the profession has left this important style of managing subordinate followers/workers behind and developed a new method of establishing best practice in the organization. What is practiced in today’s era seems to have little resemblance to transformational leadership completing tasks and objectives that reflect the mission of the profession. It appears that the era of theory development during the time of Bion (1940-1950) was the beginning and the end of the important use of Transformational Leadership for Social Work. The agency changed from being governed by its mission to help and support the client to being managed by governmental mandates that involve numbers, statistics, and the law.
X. Annotated Bibliography I
References
Agnew, Elizabeth, (2004, jan.). From charity to social work Mary E. Richmond and the
creation of an American profession.
In this article the author provides a brief history of the life, education, and career development of Mary Richmond. Mary Richmond was a leader in the social work profession in the early 1900’s. She was also the director of the Charity Organization Society (COS), and the author of the book Social Diagnosis (1917). This book was initially used for the training of social work case managers in the social work profession.
Bass, B. M. (1998). From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the
vision. Elsevier Science Publishing Co. Inc., p. 20-31.
In this article the author discusses the two leadership theories/models and how they differ in their use as well as their impact within the agency or organizational management in working with their subordinates.
Collingwood, Harris (2001, dec., HBR). Leadership’s first commandment know thyself, p.8.
In this article the author provides a discussion that informs the leader in an organization how to best succeed, and prepare for their role as a leader among their subordinates.
Child Care Act of 1969 (Source: P.A., 76-63).
This document was established by the Illinois Department of Children and Family Services. The State agency utilizes this document as their guide for the provision of services to children, families, substitute care facilities, and as a tool for the worker in the agency who is a case manager, supervisor, licensing representative/consultant to providers, and to private social service agencies in the state.
Day, P.J. (2000). A new history of social welfare. Pearson Education Co. 3rd ed. Allyn and
Bacon.
This book has a number of chapters that provide a detailed summary of the history of the development of the social work profession. The author covers the profession and their connections with the church, the legislature, orphanages, in addition to the alms houses and the development of child labor laws in our country. The book has a robust amount of data that is pertinent in understanding how the social work profession has evolved.
Epple, D. M., (oct. 2009). Women of faith: women of leadership inspiration for social work
wisdom. http://www.nacsw.org.
This article is a short discussion of women of religion and their work as leaders in the social work profession. The author provides a religious perspective for the reader regarding her work as a religious leader in the profession and her experiences.
Freud, Anna, (1969, v. v). The writings of Anna Freud research at the Hampstead Child-Therapy
Clinic and other papers. International Univ. Press, Inc. NY.
The book was written by Anna Freud, the daughter of Sigmund Freud the psychologist. Anna Freud worked closely with her father developing theory and practice for the profession of psychology, social work, and Child Welfare Services. This book continues in her series of books that provides information for the professional worker that will support and train the social work profession in their work with children and their families. In addition she provides reflections upon the work of her father.
Gellis, Z.D. (2001). Social work perceptions of transformational and transactional leadership
in health care. NASW. P.17-25.
A quantitative research project involving Transformational Leadership and Transactional Leadership is reported by the author. The report involves empirical data regarding social work, management, and leadership practices in the medical milieu. The author believes that few investigations have examined the association between leadership behaviors and organizational performance in the social work field. The model was tested using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, using a sample of 187 clinical social workers working in hospitals; clinical social workers have additional training in psychology/ treatment models of care/therapy/counseling.
Northouse, P.E., (2013). Leadership theory and practice. 6th ed., Sage Publications. LA.
This book is the newest edition written by the author regarding leadership. The book has several chapters that discuss and explore case studies that involve several theories of leadership from trait theory to transactional theory of leadership.
Payne, Malcolm (2005). Modern social work theory. Lyceum Books, Inc. Chicago, Ill.
The book is the third edition for the author regarding social work theory. The author discusses the construction of the social work theory, the practice of social work, the models of practice, and different perspectives and developments within the profession. In addition, the author uses the chapters to give a focus of the chapter, an overview of the chapters, as well as a commentary of the chapters. There is also a recommendation for additional readings for the reader.
Pines, Malcolm, (2000). Bion and group psychotherapy. (Ed.) London: Jessica Kingsley.
This book is a collection of authors who provide the reader with a discussion regarding their knowledge of, experiences in work with, and exchange with the theory work of the Group Psychotherapist Wilford R. Bion.
Preskill, S., & Brookfield, S.D., (2009). Learning as a way of leading: lessons from the
struggle for social justice. San Francisco, CA., Jossey-Bass.
In this book transformational leadership, the authors argue, represents the idea that leaders and followers are dynamic and always changing. They contend that transformational leaders maintain a capacity to learn from their peers, while they “unite with followers to pursue…the common good.”
Smith, Sarah F., & Lilienfield, Scott O. (2013). Psychopathology in the workplace: the knowns
and unknowns, p.p. 201-218.
This article appears to be innovative in bringing together the diverse and growing scientific literature on the implications of business psychology for occupational and academic differences in the workplace involving aggression and counterproductive behaviors, and ethical decision-making in corporate management.
Tafvlin, et al., (2014). Transformational leadership in the social work context: The importance
of leader continuity and co-worker support. British Journal of Social Work, 44, 886-904.
This article informs the reader about a study that attempts to answer the questions that involve leadership roles in social service agencies in the Swedish context. The study examined the impact of front line managers using transformational leadership skills in conjunction with a model of vision, empowerment, role/position clarity, and employee commitment.
Tichy, Noel & Ulich, D.O. (1984, oct). The leadership challenge-a call for transformational
leadership.
The authors provide their definition of transformational leaders, by stating that they must create something new out of something old: out of an old vision, they must develop and communicate a new vision and get others not only to see the vision but also to commit themselves to it…they make minor adjustments in the organization’s mission…they also evoke fundamental changes in the basic and political and cultural systems of the organization.
Zhang et al., (2014). Consideration for future consequences as an antecedent of transformational
leadership behavior: The moderating effects of perceived dynamic work environment. The
Leadership Quarterly, 329-342.
In this research study the authors worked upon the same definition as those presented previously for that of a transformational leader. The authors believe that despite these promising effects, people still know very little about why some leaders are more transformational than others. They contend that as a result, many scholars have called for research to explore the base or antecedents of transformational leadership behavior. The authors chose their Consideration for Future Consequences (CFC) model for three reasons, theoretical relevance is the first. The researchers indicated that they consider individual differences to be the key to distant decision making and outcomes therefore they have utilized the CFC premise of high validity, stable trait value, and theory relevance to research their five hypothesis.
XI. Annotated Bibliography II
This is the second part to develop an annotated bibliography for the final paper. In part one of the reference lists I searched for empirical data by using the keywords transformational leader, social work client population, State of Indiana, and State of Illinois. In this second portion of the assignment I have attempted to narrow the scope of my search for sources in the development of my final paper. I have done this by adding the terms Child Welfare Agencies.
With the addition of the State of Indiana I was able to find three articles (Austrom, Agard, and Lee). In adding the terms State of Illinois I was able to find one article (Smith), and with the addition of Child Welfare Agencies I was able to locate one source (Martin et. Al). This is a list of the five additional sources for the paper.
References
Agard, Kathryn A., (2011). Leadership in non-profit organizations. Sage Publication. Thoudand
Oaks, Ca.
This book has been requested form the North Central College Osterle Library I-Share Inter-Library Loan source. The abstract indicates that the author includes a discussion regarding leadership in non-profit organizations that involve their progress with the implementation of services in the horizontital connection with the community, arts and culture, religion, and human services. The author, also, includes a discussion regarding the efforts of the agency to develop, and pursue their mission issues and to better understand this sector of our society.
Austrom, Douglas R., & Baldwin, Timothy T., (2013). Applying great management in state
Agency: Indiana BMV’s journey from worst to first. Business Horizons, v. 57, issue 2,
Mch-Apr, p. 259-268.
The author provides a discussion regarding the Bureau of Motor Vehicles and how they improved their production output after implementing a transformative management model. In addition, there is an application to organizational issues that seem critical in the social sector.
Bezes, Philippe, et. Al., (2012). New public management and professionals in the public sector. What new patterns beyond opposition? SciVerse ScienceDirect. Socio du trav 54. P.p. 1-52.
This article is the collaboration of several (6) different authors. The authors provide the reader with a discussion regarding reform in management of public organizations that include New Public Management (NPM). The discussion also includes a discussion regarding the debate of whether there has been a decline in services as opposed to there being an actual transformation of the models of practice.
Kouzes, James M., & Posner, Barry Z. (2003). Academic administrator’s guide to exemplary
Leadership. Chp. 5, p.p. 63-78. Jossey-Bass. San Fran, Ca.
This book provides the reader with a guide for identifying the qualities that are explicit and implicit in management styles that are used in organizations and corporations. The authors provide advice, tasks for professionals to analyze, in addition to an orientation to day to day responsibilities of the professional in the educational milieu.
Martin, L., & Hazlett-Knudson, R., (2012). Change & continuity in state human service
Agencies from 1986-2006. Administration in Social work, 36:85-100. Copyrightt Taylor &
Francis Grump, LLC.
The authors provide the reader with a discussion regarding a longitudinal study over 20 years between 1960-2006. This discussion includes data taken from the American Public Human Services Association (APHSA) involving all states in the U.S.A. The data was gathered to determine the manner in which the states manage and organize their social service, Child Welfare Agencies. The article includes 1-6 tables with data gathered from different states. In the State of Illinois the agency listed is The Department of Human Services (DHS). In the State of Indiana the agency listed is The Department of Public Welfare (DPW).
Wallis, Nancy, et. al., (2011). Individualized Leadership: A qualitative study of senior executive
Leaders. The Leadership Quarterly, 22, p.p.182-206.
The authors (3) provide the reader with a discussion regarding a program in the State of Illinois, Individualized leadership. The program studied 11 separate independent organizations to determine the relationships between the leaders and their subordinates, and the use of transformational leadership. The project used personal interviews, written transcripts, and qualitative research data to compound their results. Their subordinates’ opinions of the use of transformational leadership were also taken into consideration. This model of leadership was found to be effective in the organizational use.
XII. Literature Review
A summary and synthesis of a look at available literature regarding Transformational Leadership used with Social Work Client Population in the State of Illinois and the State of Indiana
In my completion of a short literature review regarding the proposed topic it appears that there is limited data available globally from the profession as to how to process the strategy for best practice in transformational leadership in social work. The social work profession, which initially began with the implementation of the medical model and psychiatry practice, has continued the profession with the expectation that individuals who have a career within the profession will invest in further research, data, and provide additional information to expound and extrapolate to a higher level of understanding in the profession and to further develop a knowledge base. As an individual who has worked in the profession for a number of years, and who continues to seek knowledge and direction towards a better outcome in the work environment within the profession this is my effort to do my part to meet that goal.
Transformational Leaders are defined as “a process that changes and transforms people…involves an exceptional form of influence that moves followers to accomplish more than what is usually expected of them… encourages subordinates, to enhance their learning towards theory development, leader exhibits high moral values, appears to be a strong role model, in addition to having developed concept and competence (Northouse, 2013, p.p.185-217).” In the implementation of the medical model of practice the social work profession began by teaching women to assess home environments to determine eligibility for intervention services, and case management services for public agencies. The profession drew upon the profession of the medical field, psychology, psychiatry, and education to develop best practice. Most of the educators and theorists in the profession appeared to use the method of transformational leadership to develop theory, policy, and mandates for the worker in addition to their client base.
In my review of the literature I have found a number of materials that provide a robust history of the social work profession as an introduction to the profession (Day, Richmond, Payne). In addition, I have found several pieces of data that details the topic of the transformational leader in work with their subordinates (Northouse6th, Northouse 3rd, Kouzes). I have also found several pieces of data that details the work of leaders in the social work profession who have implemented, designed/developed, and encouraged the transformational leadership model with subordinates/workers in the profession that has also been used in the university setting for teaching students to practice in their work as a professional (Bion, Sullivan, Stolorow, A. Freud, Day).
In my effort to narrow, a more recent, literature review completed by me was done with a search using the terms transformational leadership, social work client population, State of Illinois, State of Indiana, and Child Welfare Agency. This was an attempt to narrow the scope of available data and to refine the subject matter. My initial review found some data that has been completed by other countries outside of the United States (China, Sweden), some data that is available regarding Child Welfare Agencies in America (elderly and disabled client) and management styles that are in use. A subsequent review (added terms State of Illinois, State of Indiana) found articles that provided information/variables regarding the impact of the state of affairs in organizations (i.e., aggression, violence, immigrant status, psychopathology) as the result of management style with subordinates (Wallis et.al, Smith/Scott, Bezes et.al. and Austrom/Baldwin) .
In my past work experiences with social service agencies, as a worker working with client populations, I have worked with numerous supervisors, managers, and directors. Each of these individuals has had their own individual management styles. Most of these management styles were determined upon who was in charge at the hierarchy, and what policy, mandates, and procedures were expected to be the guideline for the implementation of services. In addition, the state legislature has been involved in monetary restrictions and budgets that have also had an impact upon the manner in which services have been implemented.
Though I have attempted to refine and narrow the scope of the State of Illinois and the State of Indiana the purpose behind this decision is that my work experiences with Child Welfare Service Agencies has included having worked in both states as a social work profession (12 years in Indiana, over more than 20 years in Illinois). I have learned these theories as a student in the classroom, learning the models of practice, the theories of practice, the theorist behind the model, and studying case history/profiles.
I have learned best practice, policy and procedures for our profession and why it is important to make use of these practices with our client base. I have worked as a social worker, a part-time therapist, and as an assistant supervisor in social work agencies. These experiences have allowed me to engage with several diverse populations, and diverse communities that involve individuals in need of support, empathy, and encouragement to navigate throughout their lives, and to become whole.
I met and spoke with one of my mentors from my graduate program in Social Work in recent weeks. I inquired why this has become an issue for our profession: managers who appear to have their own and separate agendas when it comes to compliance with agency best practice, and leaders who fail to encourage and support their subordinates in their work to support client populations, nor to show any compassion for the agency or their subordinates.
He had his own set of beliefs regarding the matter. This is what appear to be the parameters for services to client populations in our present day social service agency. Leadership in social service agencies, it appears, has gone from mangers who implement transformational leadership practices to their subordinates, to managers who seem to be more self-absorbed.
My literature review has thus far shown that the use of transformational leadership in three different and separate agencies (China, Sweden and in the U.S.A.) have proven to be successful with managers and their subordinates. The use of this model/theory seems to have aligned the leader and the worker towards maintaining agency policy, increasing the implementation of services to the targeted population, and workers tend to be encouraged to work in their chosen profession. Also, the history of our profession indicates that transformational leadership was the mode of operation in the initial stages of the development of theory and practice in the social work profession.
Using this method/model for practice has developed, determined and encouraged our profession in the past. The evolution of a few decades should not hamper or impede this progress. Maybe a return to the original modem of operation could result in a better outcome for our profession, the management of workers, an alignment between management and worker, in addition to an increase in proper services for the most important figure in the equation…the client population.
XIII. Proposed Solution
Child Welfare Services have existed in the State of Illinois since approximately 1965. The director of the Child Welfare System of Illinois is a political position that is assigned to an individual by the governor of the State of Illinois. When I began my work career at the Illinois Department of Children and Family services on March 1, 1987 the director was Sue Sueter. Her tenure lasted less than two years when a new Director, Mr. Johnson was hired for the position. Mr. Johnson worked in his position as director for several years before he retired. Jess McDonald was the next director of the Department for a number of years. His tenure established a plan to make the Department more professional by assuring that all supervisors and most workers were trained with a minimum level of a Masters Degree in Social Work. The goal of the Department was to embrace best practice.
When I began my employment at the Department there was a major shake-up in the organization as the result of workers’ extreme levels of stress that was related to working conditions, work-loads, and work expectations. A number of workers, supervisors, and Case Review Administrators were terminated after media reports informed the public that some workers had (disregarded client confidentiality) physically handed over case files to a reporter named Pam Zeckman. Ms Zeckman reported incidents of significant mismanagement in the department, a sense of chaos in the organization, in addition to a total disregard for the working conditions of the worker and supervisors.
The follow-up plan was for the Department to have a mass hiring, intense worker training, and to regroup and recalibrate the system as it had been known to operate. The goal of training was to instill the values of social work, child welfare, and to assure the integration of the mission of the Child Welfare Act of 1969. Soon the Department seemed to be strattled with frequent litigation charging overzealous investigations on one hand and failure to investigate reports diligently on other basis.
Recent news has reported that the Department has had seven different directors in the past seven years (WGN News, Feb. 2015). An interim director, Denise Gonzalez, was recently appointed in November of 2014. She informed the media that her present goal was to locate and hire qualified professionals who will move the mission of the Department along in their effort to provide services to families and children.
In my experiences having worked for the Department for over 20 years the objective of management, upper management, middle management, and lower management, with the subordinate/follower/worker is to complete the tasks that will sustain the objectives of the organization. In our Masters Level Degree Program for Social Work as a student we learned the models of practice, Generalist theories, systems, and social work interventions. Upon returning to the work environment what was learned in the classroom was not often integrated in the work tasks, the work objectives, or the discussions between worker and supervisor during the periods of weekly supervision.
Some workers have noted that the clinical model taught in the educational component/milieu was discussed with their supervisor during their time in clinical supervision. Somewhere along the line it appears that the transformational leadership theory of teaching, encouraging, and developing a cohesive worker-supervisor relationship, to facilitate the goals of the organization has been lost in translation. It appears that social work services has gone from the goal and the intent of the best interest of the client to merely assuring that the work objectives have been accomplished, appeasing the media, and hiring supervisors who rule with a iron hand (LMX theory: transactional).
The Indiana Department of Motor Vehicles was revamped with a plan by the governor of the state to hire a manager with training and skills (retail) that would address providing the best services to the client consumer. Agencies in Sweden, China, and some agencies in America (elderly, disabled, BMV) seem to have made a success of reestablishing a plan that embraces the approach involving the transformational leadership model. Making good practice of this model seems to encourage not only worker skills and abilities but also those of the leader. It may behoove the Department to take another look at the transformational leadership model as a new, the original, approach to serving the tired, the poor; those yearning to be free…usually those who are our social work client populations.
It seems to have been indicated in the research done here that there is little research from which to draw upon to determine any long-term success with the use of this model. But it appears that in the social work services environments where the model has been used it has been recognized as a successful link to improved work conditions. The system that has been utilized in the past few decades seems only to have deteriorated client services. It may be time for a change as we move forward.
XIV. Information on Stakeholders
The important individuals who would stand to benefit from this resolution/new proposal for agency reorganizations to take a new perspective in the delivery of services are many, varied, and diverse. The most pertinent stakeholders to experience a significant, positive impact from a proposed change would be the social work client, consumer populations. Those, other individuals, who would experience a positive impact, would be the worker-leader-supervisor dyad in the work environment. In addition, the work environment would and should experience a significant level of a shift in the stress, anxiety, acrimony, cacophony, and hostile environments that have been created as the result of disorganization, and chaos in the work place.
The Department operates under the auspicious of the State of Illinois Legislative body. The legislature has the power to make decisions regarding the disbursement of finances, financial obligations (funds for disbursement for hiring staff, pension funds, salary increases, and salary disbursements). This governmental legislative body has a great interest in the success of all of their state agencies, and the provision of services to the public consumer.
The governor of the state hires/fires the director, the director oversees and delegates authority to management (upper management, middle management, lower management) and management provides the supervision and leadership model for the worker in the organization. Lobbyists may be able to further facilitate the cause for an improvement in services to the public consumer.
XV. Expected / “Real” Outcomes
All roads lead to good, appropriate, and well managed services to the client consumer. The client consumer’s best interest is served by the delegation of authority that extrapolates into successes for the organization and a public/community that has been appeased. A plan for a more organized Child Welfare Agency that is trained, managed/supervised, and develops relationships that will encourage the transformation leadership model for services to the social work client populations should show a positive impact for the client, the worker-supervisor/leader dyad, and a more positive public relations image for the agency and the general public.
The Institutions of Higher education (IHE) would be encouraged to continue their curriculum training in the manner of coursework that will facilitate and train the social work student in the transitional leadership model; the model that was initially intended to train the original case manager in the era of Mary Richmond, Jane Adams, and Wilfred Bion. Bass (1985, 2001) informs the reader that organizations who utilize the transformational leadership model tend to be highly organized in their structure. We do now live in a new world from the times of these pioneer educators/social work leaders. But the mission of the profession has not veered off to the left…yet.
“A firm that is permeated with transformational leadership from top to bottom conveys to its own personnel as well as to customers, suppliers, financial backers, and the community at large that it has its eyes on the future; is confident; has personnel who are pulling together for the common good; and places a premium on its intellectual resources and flexibility and on the development of its people (Bass, 2000, p. 25).” In addition, Payne informs the reader that “Social workers use critical and reflective practice to create theory, by practicing reflectively with their clients. This is how their work becomes part of the critical debate among the ideas that inform social work action in the arenas that construct theory in a complex social world (Payne, 2005, p. 67).”
XVI. Conclusion/Critical Analysis
The Social Work profession has been a very important, as well as a very integral, part of my life and my working career. I was raised in a family of individuals who helped, supported, and encouraged others in the community. I came from a family of teachers, college professors, nurses, counselors, physicians, dentist, plain old housewives, and plain old labor workers. My family encouraged me to always reach back and help those individuals who come behind you. From the cradle I was taught how to (vicariously, and unintended/implicitly) to become a social worker.
The social work profession has seen many changes that have been initiated by innovators in education, theorists from the medical profession, legal profession, field of psychiatry, and the educational milieu. The profession, as many other professions have done, draws knowledge from a number of different bases that has been encapsulated into the models of practice and theory for client populations. The profession has been shaped by the church, by philosophers, the Great Depression, in addition to politics and politicians. The impact of it all develops into social work practice, theory, and management of services to the client consumer.
Until approximately 1950 the profession was involved in a form of social work services that involved a positive and encouraging dyad between the leader and the subordinate. The leader encouraged the efforts of the worker, the worker came to believe that their integrity, self-worth, and their autonomy mattered to the leader; and an effort to provide good quality services to the client were the result of this relationship. Changes in our American economy, the way of life/lifestyle and personal interests, and global relationships between organizations seems to have encouraged a shift in the manner of the provision of services to the public.
Child Welfare Services seems to have been a target of these changes in our society. The agency has experienced upheaval in management, scrutiny in the media, fear of litigation from disgruntled consumers, and a history of workers who use the agency as a stepping stone to other opportunities for employment. Internal conflicts, the creation of a hostile work environment (possible psychopathology in personalities), and workers who are pressured to complete the designated tasks as opposed to achieving successful behaviors/relationships seems to be the mode of operation in today’s society, in this profession (LMX theory: primarily transactional).
There is an appearance that the profession has waned from an entity that seeks to ingratiate the client and our society to a profession who is self absorbed with a means to the end (LMX theory; mostly transactional). As the result the agency has managed to have lost the context of the mission of social work, and social work services to the community. The research that has been done in this short paper indicates that social service agencies in China, Sweden, and some in our America (services to the elderly, disabled, and the Indiana BMV) work well when they encourage transitional leadership theory with social work client populations.
This theory seems to encourage the worker, encourage worker/supervisor dyads, and the services to the client consumer seem to improve. The transitional leadership theory has been the legacy of our pioneer leaders in the profession of social work. There is limited research that would indicate any vast amounts of success using the theory in modern day society. And maybe our society has changed too much, and had too many variables that impact the use of this theory in modern day society to really make a difference. But transformational leadership theory has been the basis of our work to be done in our profession in the past. The mission of our social work profession has not yet changed. We continue to work for the best interest of, and the best practice for the client population in our American society.
